ABSTRACT
Electronic equipment has made its way in to practically every aspect of modern life, from toys to high power computer. Electronic components depend on the passage of electric current and they become potential sites for excessive heating since the current flow through a resistance is accompanied by heat generation. Continued miniaturization of electronic system has resulted in a dramatic increase in the heat generated per unit volume. Unless properly designed and controlled; high rates heat generation result in high operating temperatures for electronic equipment, which jeopardizes its safety and reliability.
INTRODUCTION
Electronic
equipment has made its way in to practically every aspect of modern life, from
toys to high power computer. Electronic components depend on the passage of
electric current and they become potential sites for excessive heating since
the current flow through a resistance is accompanied by heat generation.
Continued miniaturization of electronic system has resulted in a dramatic
increase in the heat generated per unit volume. Unless properly designed and
controlled; high rates heat generation result in high operating temperatures
for electronic equipment, which jeopardizes its safety and reliability. Thermal management is a challenging field that the developments and
improvements in thermal management hardware have assisted the electronics
packaging community by enabling higher heat fluxes in ever-smaller packaging
volumes The growth of commercial electronics coupled with the need for better
cooling, has enabled some thermal management technologies to move from
expensive aerospace technologies to costs that are viable for commercial
packaging.
HISTORY
The
story of packaging in the past decade is tightly coupled to the continuous and
rapid development of integrated circuit technology as exemplified by Moore
Once
the integrated circuit was invented, it was an inevitable trend that more and
more of the functionality of a given electronic system would be integrated into
fewer and fewer chips. The increased functionality led to requirements for
greater I/O (input-output) connections and greater power. Packaging, as always,
had to satisfy the role of an enabling technology to allow the full performance
potential of a semiconductor to be realized in a given application. Package
technology experienced dramatic changes to keep pace with these rapid changes
in IC functionality.
THERMAL
INTERFACE MATERIAL
Thermal interface material (TIM) is essential when two or
more solid surfaces are in the heat path. Standard machined surfaces are rough
and wavy, leading to relatively few actual contact points between surfaces. The
insulating air gaps created by multiple voids of "contacting" hard
surfaces are simply too large a thermal barrier for even modest power
applications. The first tactic in overcoming this barrier is to fill the voids
and eliminate air by introducing a third material to the heat path that is
fluidic and wets the surfaces. As shown in Figure 1, a thermal interface
material essentially changes the thermal path between rough-surfaced solids
from conduction through point contacts and air to conduction entirely through
solids
An
important property of any TIM is its thermal conductivity. In addition to
thermal performance, TIM’S are selected on several other critical criteria as
well. Ease of use in assembly and rework are important in high-end
applications, as is long-term stability (reliability). Elastomeric pads were
developed as an alternative to early grease solutions, largely for the
manufacturing advantages they offered. Phase change materials emerged as a
technology that captured the thermal performance advantage of grease and
combined it with the assembly ease of a solid pad.
HEAT SINKS
Heat sinks are needed when the heat transfer to the ambient
air directly from the top of the package or via the system board is not
sufficient to keep the semiconductor device within the allowable temperature
range.
The increase in power across all applications involving ICs
led to the more frequent need for heat sinks It gave more flexibility in
managing heat loads far beyond the original design intent of a system.
An example is on a graphics processor in an expansion card in
a PC. The mainstay in the heat sink industry: the extruded aluminum heat
sink was supplanted in higher power applications. For a given heat sink form
factor, its thermal performance can be enhanced, in general, by the following
two approaches:
1. Increasing the thermal conductance of
components comprising the heat sink.
2. Increasing the fin area exposed to the
airflow.
FANS
Developments in fan technology closely paralleled
developments in heat sinks. Fans have been subject to the same cost sensitivity
and form factor demands as heat sinks. For example, miniature fans are now
being used in laptop computers. Since fans are active devices, noise and
long-term reliability are further considerations.
The heat removal capability of a heat sink is directly
proportional to the mass flow of air through its fin structure. A simple way of
getting higher thermal performance from a heat sink is by pushing more air
through it. However, in life, nothing is free, so using a fan at a higher
pressure drop leads to greater power consumption in moving the air and greater
noise. This is the inevitable struggle in fan usage.
HEAT PIPES
To cool electronic components, one can use air and liquid
coolers as well as coolers constructed on the principle of the phase change
heat transfer in closed space; i.e., immersion, thermosyphon, and heat pipe
coolers. Each of these methods has its merits and draw-backs because, in the
choice of appropriate cooling, one must take into consideration not only the
thermal parameters of the cooler but also design and stability of the system,
durability, technology, price, application, etc. they are most effective and
have great potential as power levels and volume requirements increase. For
these reasons heat pipes have been applied up to now mainly in applications
with special working conditions and requirements, such as in space thermal
control, in aircraft devices, in traction drives in audio amplifiers, in
cooling of closed cabinets in harsh environmental conditions, etc. Heat pipes, because
of their high thermal conductivity, provide an essential isothermal environment
with very small temperature gradients between the individual components. The
high heat transfer characteristics, the ability to maintain constant evaporator
temperatures under different heat flux levels, and the diversity and
variability of evaporator and condenser sizes make the heat pipe an effective
device for the thermal control of electronic components
Heat Pipe
Operation
Heat pipes are sealed vacuum vessels
that are partially filled with a working fluid, typically water in electronic
cooling, which serves as the heat transfer medium. The heat pipe envelope is
made of copper in a myriad of shapes including cylindrical, rectangular, or any
other enclosed
geometry. The wall of the envelope is lined with a wick structure, which provides surface area for the evaporation/condensation cycle and capillary capability. Since the heat pipe is evacuated and then charged with the working fluid prior to being sealed, the internal pressure is set by the vapor pressure of the working fluid.
geometry. The wall of the envelope is lined with a wick structure, which provides surface area for the evaporation/condensation cycle and capillary capability. Since the heat pipe is evacuated and then charged with the working fluid prior to being sealed, the internal pressure is set by the vapor pressure of the working fluid.
As heat is applied to the surface of
the heat pipe, the working fluid is vaporized (Figure 1). The vapor at the
evaporator section is at a slightly higher temperature and pressure than other
areas. This creates a pressure gradient that forces the vapor to flow to the
cooler regions of the heat pipe. As the vapor condenses on the heat pipe walls,
the latent heat of vaporization is transferred to the condenser. The capillary
wick then transports the condensate back to the evaporator section. This closed
loop process continues as long as heat is applied.
For a heat pipe to function properly,
the net capillary pressure difference between evaporator (heat source) and
condenser (heat sink) must be greater than the sum of all pressures losses
occurring throughout the liquid and vapor flow paths. This relationship,
referred to as the capillary limitation, can be expressed mathematically as follows.
Pcmax is the maximum capillary
pressure difference generated within the capillary wicking structure between
the evaporator and condenser, 
Pl and Pv are the viscous pressure drops
occurring in the liquid and vapor phases, respectively, and Pg represents the hydrostatic
pressure drop.
Pl and Pv are the viscous pressure drops
occurring in the liquid and vapor phases, respectively, and Pg represents the hydrostatic
pressure drop.
When the maximum capillary pressure is
equal to or greater than the sum of these pressure drops, the capillary
structure can return an adequate amount of working fluid (priming or repriming
of the heat pipe) to prevent the evaporator wicking structure from drying out.
When the sum of all pressure drops exceeds the maximum capillary pumping
pressure, the working fluid is not supplied rapidly enough to the evaporator to
compensate for the liquid loss through vaporization, and the wicking structure
becomes starved of liquid and dries out (depriming of the heat pipe). This
condition, referred to as capillary limitation, varies according to the wicking
structure, working fluid, evaporator heat flux, operating temperature, and body
forces .
PULSATING HEAT PIPE
Although a plethora of designs of
classical heat pipes are available, recent industry trends have frequently
shown the limitations of these conventional designs. This has led to the
evolution of novel concepts fitting the needs of present industry demands. A
relatively new and emerging technology, Pulsating or Loop-type Heat Pipes
(PHP), as proposed by Akachi represent one such field of investigation. This
range of devices is projected to meet all present and possibly future specific
requirements of the electronics cooling industry, owing to favorable
operational characteristics coupled with relatively cheaper costs.
Although grouped as a subclass of the
overall family of heat pipes, the subtle complexity of internal thermo-fluidic
transport phenomena is quite unique, justifying the need for a completely
different research outlook. A comprehensive theory of operation and a reliable
database or tools for the design of PHPs according to a given
microelectronics-cooling requirement still remain Unrealized
HIGH POWERED CHIP COOLING
There was a demand for increased
packaging density and performance reasserted itself and heat flux is again
increasing dramatically. This has prompted many to ask what the practical
limits of air-cooling are and when is it necessary resort to some form of
liquid cooling?
AIR COOLING
With standard fans a
maximum heat transfer coefficient of maybe 150 W/m2K can be reached with
acceptable noise levels, which is about 1 W/cm2 for a 60°C temperature difference
INDIRECT LIQUID COOLING
Indirect liquid cooling schemes are
denoted by the presence of distinct physical barriers between the chip and the
liquid. Several possible implementations are illustrated in Figure 4. The most
conservative implementation is to attach a separable cold plate to a lidded
module (Figure 4a). When greater thermal performance is desired, the interface
between the cold plate and the module can be eliminated by integrating the cold
plate with the module (Figure 4b). Taking the concept to the limit, chip-scale
high performance cold plates of the type discussed in Reference can be attached
directly to the chips (Figure 4c).
DIRECT LIQUID COOLING
Direct liquid (immersion) cooling
brings the coolant in direct contact with the back of the chip. Historically,
the coolant considered was a dielectric (e.g., fluorocarbon coolants or FCs)
primarily because it would also be in direct contact with the chip
interconnects and substrate top surface metallurgy (TSM). For this exercise, it
is assumed that water can be brought in direct contact with the back of the
chip. Obviously a seal or barrier preventing water from contacting the
interconnects or TSM is needed. For now, it is assumed that such a seal/barrier
is technically feasible.
For the dielectric cooling cases, a
few different options may be considered. For example, droplets of a dielectric
coolant may be sprayed on the chip surface as shown in Figure 5. Based upon
values reported in the literature spray cooling with a fluorocarbon liquid
(i.e., FC-72) is capable
of supporting heat fluxes up to 50 to 60 W/cm2 while limiting chip junction temperatures to 85°C. Jet impingement of a dielectric liquid on the chip surface may also be considered (Figure 6). Researchers have reported chip heat fluxes approaching 120 W/cm2 and a chip to liquid temperature difference of 60°C while cooling a 6 x 6 mm silicon chip with a single jet of FC-72 liquid at a flow rate of 2.2 x 10-4 m3/s . It is expected that for the chip size under consideration here, the same heat flux and temperature difference could be achieved with four jets and a liquid flow rate per chip of 8.8 x 10-4 m3/s. Alternatively, the dielectric coolant flow could be directed through a micro channel heat sink attached directly to the chip as shown in Figure 7. As with indirect liquid cooling, single phase convection heat transfer is assumed. It is also assumed that a metal chip-to-heat sink interface of 2.5°C-mm2/W is the best achievable for the heat sink attach.
of supporting heat fluxes up to 50 to 60 W/cm2 while limiting chip junction temperatures to 85°C. Jet impingement of a dielectric liquid on the chip surface may also be considered (Figure 6). Researchers have reported chip heat fluxes approaching 120 W/cm2 and a chip to liquid temperature difference of 60°C while cooling a 6 x 6 mm silicon chip with a single jet of FC-72 liquid at a flow rate of 2.2 x 10-4 m3/s . It is expected that for the chip size under consideration here, the same heat flux and temperature difference could be achieved with four jets and a liquid flow rate per chip of 8.8 x 10-4 m3/s. Alternatively, the dielectric coolant flow could be directed through a micro channel heat sink attached directly to the chip as shown in Figure 7. As with indirect liquid cooling, single phase convection heat transfer is assumed. It is also assumed that a metal chip-to-heat sink interface of 2.5°C-mm2/W is the best achievable for the heat sink attach.
Ultimately, given that an adequate
chip to liquid seal can be provided, direct jet impingement of water on the
back of the chip may be considered. For this case a recently published correlation
for multiple jets is used to predict water jet impingement cooling performance.
For these various options, the chip
heat removal capability for a 60°C chip to liquid inlet temperature difference
is estimated to be 60, 120, 300, and 460 W/cm2 for spray cooling,
dielectric jet impingement cooling, forced convection dielectric cooling with a
heat sink attached to the chip, and water jet impingement, respectively.
PIEZO FANS
Piezoelectric fans are low power,
small, relatively low noise, solid-state devices that recently emerged as
viable thermal management solutions for a variety of portable electronics
applications including laptop computers and cellular phones. Piezoelectric fans
utilize piezoceramic patches bonded onto thin, low frequency flexible blades to
drive the fan at its resonance frequency. The resonating low frequency blade
creates a streaming airflow directed at electronics components.
MICROCHANNELS AND
MINICHANNELS
The term 'micro' is applied to devices
having hydraulic diameters of ten to several hundred micrometers, while 'mini'
refers to diameters on the order of one to a few millimeters. In many practical
cases, the small flow rate within micro-channels produces laminar flow
resulting in a heat transfer coefficient inversely proportional to the
hydraulic diameter. In other words, the smaller the channel, the higher the
heat transfer coefficient. Unfortunately, the pressure drop increases with the
inverse of the second power of the channel width, keeping the mass flow
constant, and limiting ongoing miniaturization in practice.
NANOLIGHTNING
It is based on 'micro-scale ion-driven
airflow' using very high electric fields created by nanotubes. As shown in
Figure 5, the ionized air molecules are moved by another electric field,
thereby inducing secondary airflow. Cooling a heat flux level of 40 W/cm2
has been reported.
CONCLUSION
A comparison of the heat removal
capability in terms of chip heat flux for the module cooling concepts.
A number of approaches show interesting industrial
potential for the cooling of high-power electronics. For heat flux densities up
to and maybe even beyond 50 W/cm2 air-cooling may remain the cooling
option of choice. For heat fluxes over 100 W/cm2, some form of
liquid-cooling appears to be the most viable option. Several papers have
demonstrated solutions that may be industrially feasible for application in the
range between 500 and 1000 W/cm2. Considering the range of efforts
underway to extend conventional cooling technologies, as well as develop new
ones, the future seems bright for accommodating high-heat flux applications.
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